Didactics of Critical Thinking in Higher Education

Critical thinking is transcendental in the training of future professionals. It is an indisputable element when referring to “the skills of the future,” “work skills for 2030,” or “Education for the 21st century“. Critical thinking allows us to analyze problems from multiple perspectives, question assumptions, avoid biases, confidently face ethical challenges, manage change, and propose innovative solutions (Normile, 2025). However, despite its good reputation, it is practiced little. Instead, simplification and egocentric thinking are commonly applied, attempting to explain everything through single causes, looking for a “culprit,” and thinking that our vision of things is the only one, always correct. Therefore, it is essential to develop this competency in students. In this article, I share five steps to build critical thinking.

The antagonist of critical thinking is egocentric thinking, which arises from the natural tendency of human beings to interpret the world from their perspective, assuming that their vision of reality is the only valid one. This approach, common in childhood, limits adults’ ability to adapt and understand complex contexts (Baumeister, 2010; Paul & Elder, 2022). Egocentric thinking limits learning and promotes interpersonal conflicts, because “whoever thinks differently from me does not understand.” Hence, this rigid and inflexible thinking must be combated with reflective and objective thinking.

Critical thinking is a desired skill in professional fields and in our relationships with others. It helps us to be more empathetic and respectful in communication, to avoid hasty judgments, and to make better decisions (Siegel, 2016). We can even practice it daily through different communication platforms such as social media, online video games, and, recently, generative artificial intelligence technologies (like ChatGPT). Critical thinking allows us to evaluate the veracity of information we receive, prevent plagiarism, recognize and defeat our biases, ask better questions, and leverage these tools to our advantage (Suriano et al., 2025).

Critical thinking and metacognition

Because critical thinking allows for processing information objectively, thoughtfully, and strategically, it leads to a more profound understanding of the world, transcending prejudices, biases, and unexamined assumptions. Below are six practices to develop critical thinking (Facione & Gittens, 2015; Paul & Elder, 2022).

Six Practices to Develop Critical Thinking

Intellectual curiosity is the willingness to question and explore ideas beyond appearances.
Logical analysis allows for identifying arguments and distinguishing between solid reasoning and fallacies.
Evaluation by evidence means assessing the quality and relevance of data and arguments based on empirical or theoretical evidence.
Perspectivism is the openness to recognize and consider alternative points of view to enrich understanding (Monereo, 2008).
Cognitive autonomy is the ability to think for oneself, resisting external pressures or group biases.
Metacognitive reflexivity is knowing how to examine and adjust one’s thought processes, recognize mistakes, and learn from them.

Combined, these six practices are not isolated skills but habits of mind that enable a person to understand, question, analyze, and improve their thinking. Intellectual curiosity is the starting point: without it, there is no research, questioning, or thought improvement. Next, logical analysis helps to separate the valid from the deceptive, the coherent from the contradictory. Evaluation by evidence disciplines us not to settle for opinions or assumptions. Special mention should be made of perspectivism, which invites us to integrate visions different from our own to protect us from closed or dogmatic thinking. Also, cognitive autonomy allows us to think independently without succumbing to fashion or pressures. Finally, metacognitive reflexivity is the engine of improvement that enables us to correct the course and improve continuously.

As we can see, these practices have a common denominator: they require each person to develop the ability to pilot the ship of their learning, something that experts call metacognition.

A “thinking about thinking”

Metacognition is the ability to reflect on one’s thinking, question one’s ideas, and open oneself to new perspectives. It improves understanding problems, enhances strategic learning, and allows for effective interactions with others. Its four foundations are the following (Flavell, 1979; Firth, 2024):

Four Foundations of Metacognition

Awareness of one’s thinking: The individual recognizes their mental processes, including biases, beliefs, and limitations. Example: “I know I tend to be impatient in arguments, so I will try to listen before I respond.”
Openness to perspectivism: Diverse points of view are valued and considered, understanding that reality is multifaceted. Example: “I disagree, but I am interested in understanding how you came to that conclusion.”
Strategic questioning: One continuously evaluates the validity of one’s ideas and decisions, adjusting them according to new information. For example, “I thought this was the best solution, but after hearing other arguments, I’m considering it.”
Adaptive learning: Strategies are developed to learn from mistakes and improve reasoning. Example: “I failed my previous plan because I underestimated the unforeseen. In the future, I will leave room to adapt.”

Metacognition promotes a reflective perspective open to new possibilities, fosters dialogue and collaboration, improves decision-making in complex environments, and is key in lifelong learning processes (Evans, 2018).

Didactics of critical thinking in five steps

After considering the relevance of critical thinking presented above, the next logical step is formulating its didactics. Of course, this should not be a rigid method but a road map to tackle this challenge. Accordingly, we worked with professors from the Ana G. Méndez University in Puerto Rico and professors and directors from the PrepaTec (high school) of the Monterrey Institute of Technology in Mexico, with the ACT! Project.

The Act! acronym in Spanish stands for the “Algorithmic Transdisciplinary Capabilities” project, which aims to create a pedagogical algorithm: a straightforward sequence of steps that serves as a “roadmap” for teachers to tackle complex challenges. Examples include encouraging analytical thinking, strengthening metacognitive abilities, and transforming errors into learning opportunities, all with the naturalness of following a technical procedure through simple, flexible, and adaptable rules. Algorithmics reduces teachers’ anxiety and empowers them in the face of complexity.

One of the central themes in this project is the didactics of critical thinking, where we propose a five-step approach.

Five steps of the didactics of critical thinking

1. Become aware of your egocentric thinking. This first step involves deep introspection and self-criticism. It is a challenging process due to many factors, such as self-serving bias (we find it difficult to accept that we may be operating based on errors in judgment or personal limitations), emotional resistance (fear of vulnerability and feeling insecure or exposed), or lack of metacognitive awareness (Without well-developed capacities for reflection, it is difficult to identify when we fall victim to the egocentric perspective.) The following questions may be helpful:

How would I justify their position if I were in the shoes of the person with whom I disagree? What aspects of their perspective might be reasonable or valid?
What might I learn if I stop defending my position and authentically listen? Am I willing to accept that I could be wrong?

2. Practice intellectual humility. It means reviewing and adjusting our perspectives, avoiding over-reliance on our expertise. Intellectual humility fosters a genuine respect for others’ opinions and viewpoints, transforming intellectual disagreements into learning opportunities rather than threats to the ego. Some helpful questions are:

What views do I find uncomfortable or difficult to accept?
What does this person know that I do not?
In what areas of my professional or academic life should I abandon my “know-it-all” attitude to learn and grow?
How can I ask for constructive feedback without my self-esteem feeling threatened?

3. Build a collaborative space for inquiry. The idea is that pedagogy shifts from an answer-centric approach to a question-oriented one. In this scenario, collaboration is highly valued because the group context generates collective effervescence and synchronized interactions that enrich the thinking and learning process, allowing people to think, act, and feel differently and more effectively (Margery, 2019). Some helpful questions are:

How can I integrate and enrich the proposals of my peers?
What proposals from the group have surprised me?
What have I learned from working with the group?

4. Approach the subject with universal intellectual standards (Paul and Elder, op cit.)This refers to seeking clarity in the subject we are studying (Could you give me an example?), accuracy (Is it possible to verify that?), precision (Can you offer details?), relevance (How does this relate to the problem?), depth (What complications should be faced?), breadth (Should this be examined from another perspective?) and logic (Does evidence support your argument?).

Applying these standards converts any analysis or conversation into an exercise in disciplined critical thinking. Clarity forces us to define concepts and eliminate ambiguities. Accuracy and precision demand verifiable data and specific details, reducing assumptions. Relevance keeps each idea connected to the core problem. Depth uncovers causes and nuances that avoid simplifications. Breadth incorporates alternative perspectives to circumvent biases, and logic verifies that conclusions are derived from evidence. Together, these seven filters function as a cognitive checklist that purifies information and raises the quality of arguments, generating more rigorous and productive dialogues.

5. Work on metacognitive abilities. The aim is that each learner intentionally applies critical thinking and continually develops it: What have I learned? What has cost me the most? How has collaborating with others or employing universal intellectual standards enriched my perspective? How can I apply these reflections in future learning situations?

Just as collaborative spaces significantly impact the construction of these capacities, a second instrumental support is generative artificial intelligence tools that, infused with quality materials, generate challenging and well-focused questions to enrich reflection and progress in each of these five suggested steps.

Although these five didactical steps are interconnected practices, they can be applied in parallel throughout any learning process; they have an ordered development. The first two steps—recognizing egocentric thinking and cultivating intellectual humility—function as a platform, since without openness and self-assessment, building critical thinking is complex. This base makes collaborative work and the application of universal intellectual standards possible; it requires a willingness to dialogue, mental discipline, and openness to complexity. The fifth step, metacognition, is not a closure but a continuous process of self-regulation and growth that encourages each person to learn intentionally over time.

This perspective is advantageous in a project-based classroom as it allows students to develop a critical awareness of their processes, from questioning their initial assumptions, dialoging with others, and evaluating evidence to reviewing their progress. Applying these five steps consciously and progressively throughout the project’s development transforms the classroom experience into comprehensive, critical-thinking training, deeply connected to autonomous, collaborative, and meaningful learning.

Reflection

Understanding the world profoundly influences how we analyze it, solve problems, and make decisions. Egocentric thinking (always assuming that our vision of things is the only true one) yields a limited and rigid vision; critical thinking facilitates a more helpful approach to the complexity of reality.

Of course, to achieve this, we must note our egocentrism (“Things are not necessarily the way I see them”), practice intellectual humility (“Others have relevant information, which could change my view of things”), learn collaboratively (“What idea from my peers has surprised me?”), apply universal intellectual standards (“What evidence supports this idea?”) and work on metacognitive abilities (“How am I doing with my learning?”).

Thus, developing critical thinking requires following the five steps presented in this article. It will provide the tools to foster a strategic and adaptive mindset, essential to addressing the challenges of today’s world. Once we know the route, we easily recognize ourselves as professionals in practice and are encouraged, together with our students, to undertake the journey.

About the author

Enrique Margery Bertoglia (emargery@deinsaglobal.com) has a bachelor’s degree in engineering and a Doctorate in Education. He is a TEDx speaker, business trainer, and Director of The Training Lab. He is a member of the HSI-STEM team at UAGM University (Puerto Rico) and a pedagogical advisor to institutions such as the Prepa TEC of Tecnológico de Monterrey (Mexico) and the INIE (Institute of Research in Education) at the University of Costa Rica. He is the author of the books “Team Building,” “La Bandada,” “Actuar para Pensar,” “Complexity, Transdisciplinarity and Competencies,” “Coaching Tools,” “The Journey,” and “Get off the Ladder.”

References

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Evans, G. J. (2018). A Windmill of Your Mind: Metacognition and Lifelong Learning. In Proceedings of the 2018 Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA-ACEG18) Conference (Paper 036, pp. 1–5). Vancouver, Canadá: University of British Columbia.

Facione, P. A., and Gittens, C. A. (2015). Think critically. Pearson Education.

Firth, J. (2024). Metacognition and study skills. Routledge.

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911.

Margery, E. (2019). Complejidad, transdisciplinariedad, y competencias. Letrame.

Margery, E. (en prensa). Hacia una algorítmica de capacidades transdisciplinares: el Proyecto ¡ACT! In Fundamentos de la educación STEAM. Editorial Universitaria, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala.

Monereo, C. (2008). Ser estratégico y autónomo aprendiendo. GRAÓ.

Normile, I. H. (2025). A Model for Understanding and Expanding the Scope of Critical Thinking. Studies in Philosophy and Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-024-09976-x

Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2022). Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life. Pearson Education.

Siegel, H. (2016). Critical thinking and the intellectual virtues, In: J. Baehr, (ed) The Inquiring Mind: On Intellectual Virtues and Virtue Epistemology. London: Routledge.

Suriano, R., Plebe, A., Acciai, A., & Fabio, R. A. (2025). Student interaction with ChatGPT can promote complex critical thinking skills. Learning and Instruction, 95, 102011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.102011

Editing

Edited by Rubí Román (rubi.roman@tec.mx) – Editor of the Edu bits articles and producer of The Observatory webinars- “Learning that inspires” – Observatory of the Institute for the Future of Education at Tec de Monterrey.